The article I am reviewing is "From Tourists to Citizens in the Classroom", by H. Jerome Freiberg. It was originally published in Educational Leadership v54, p32-36 1996.
The article highlights a program (Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline) which seeks to turn students from being tourists (students that simply pass through without involvement, commitment, or belonging) to citizens (students who are active participants in their education). This program, which has been used with over 10,000 students in Texas, is based around 5 themes: prevention, caring, cooperation, organization, and community. Each theme includes strategies and activities designed to lead students to become real partners in the classroom. Prevention involves establishing high expectations and a consistent but not too rigid enforcement. The article gives the example of having students and teachers create a class constitution which everyone signs. Caring involves creating a climate where students feel valued. Examples of this are practicing respectful discourse, celebrating birthdays and student achievements, and having administrators enter the classroom to help teach. Cooperation is based around creating a climate of "helping, sharing, participating, planning, and working together". Organization is closely related to this. It involves creating a classroom of mutual responsibility by assigning roles to students with in the classroom. In their example, students apply for these jobs, which are rotated periodically. The last theme is community, which involves finding ways to bring the community into the classroom. Some of the examples given were having parents come into talk about how class rules relate to work rules, scheduling field trips with business mentors, having teachers send postcards to parents with positive notes. The article concludes with citing positive results where the program has been implemented. Research comparing schools who are using this program with ones who aren't, has shown increased student involvement, task orientation, teacher and student expectations, achievement motivation, and academic self-concept.
The goal of this program is an essential one, leading students to becoming active participants in their education. While the article was brief and didn't go into great detail, it outlined some broad strategies for achieving this which I felt were very good ideas, such as: creating a democratic classroom, in which students develop classroom rule and expectations of behavior; establishing a climate where students feel personally valued, and are encouraged to help each other; assigning students role to promote leadership and a sense of shared responsibility; and involving the community in the classroom. One thing I think is important to note is that this program wasn't just trying to implement these strategies in individual classrooms, but rather as a school wide initiative, where students will be encouraged to become involved at every step in their school career from K-12. The desirable outcomes are something that are developed and constantly reinforced over time. I personally feel that a high level of student involvement is the key to a successful classroom, both in terms of achievement and management, and I will look for ways to implement some of the themes discussed in this article in my classrooms.
My first professional reading for EDSC 658 is the article Classrooms by Dan Butin. National Clearinghouse for educational Facilities July 2000
This article discusses classroom design and gives a brief historical look at some trends in classrooms layouts. The Lancastrian design (which used the bleacher style seating) was popular during the early 20th century. The rectangular classrooms that we are most likely familiar with became popular in the 1920’s and other than a short time in the 1970’s when open classrooms were tried in some classes it continues to be the norm. The most effective classroom design seems to be under constant debate but according to this article the basic trends are leaning toward a more student centered approach. The article deals with incorporating technology into the classroom and how this technology needs more space to accommodate computer workstations as well as more wiring for voice, video, data, and wireless capabilities. It goes on to state that 15% more space should be added to the average classroom size of 750-1200 square feet. Lighting is another area that the article covers and it states research has shown that natural light can reduce off-task behavior, absence, and depression. If natural light is not available the next best option is a combination of indirect and task lighting that can be adjusted. When furnishing the classroom, it is recommended that the student desks having storage and student chairs being ergonomically designed, padded, and adjustable. Tables should be available for small or large group, and project-centered work and computers workstations should be in clustered in carrels. It also states that movable and lockable storage space makes for more flexibility in classroom activities. The final suggestion on furnishing the classroom was that the teacher desk should be ample, have lockable storage space and computer connected to a modem, and should be either be out side that classroom of on the periphery. The classroom as a whole should have a length to width ratio of 3:2 and have at least 9-foot ceilings and should be able to accommodate seating either in rows, small clusters or U shape arrangements. The article also covers some principles of classroom design which include: being accessible to the outdoors which not only allows natural light in through visual access but also would allow for an alternate place for small or large groups to meet and do work. Classrooms should also be clustered around a common area to encourage a sense of community and cohesiveness. It is also important to create a classroom that fosters creativity and engagement and one should keep in mind that it must be a place that will be able to adapt to accommodate changes in technology and teaching styles over several decades. The article ends by saying that a classroom should be thought of as place “where knowledge can be discussed and discovered rather than a space where knowledge is transferred from teacher to student”.
I enjoyed reading the reveiw on "From tourist to citizens in the classroom" I like the idea of helping students become more active participants in their education.
Reference: Obenchain, K.M. and Taylor, S.S. (2005). Behavior Management: Making it work in middle and secondary schools. The Clearing House, 79, 7-11.
Behavior Management: Making it Work in Middle and Secondary Schools by Obenchain and Taylor (2005) focuses on commonly misused techniques for addressing behavior in the classroom and offers suggestions for correcting those techniques. Specifically, this article focuses on three different behavior intervention strategies in which teacher intervention plays an important and necessary role. The article poses the question, how do teachers resist falling victim to misuse of behavioral strategies?
Research in the area of behavior management as a component of classroom management has been evolving for years. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner first outlined the basic principles used in classroom behavior interventions in 1953. His findings laid the groundwork for continued research in this field. Skinner’s contributions, along with continued research in the field of behaviorism, allows preservice teachers entering the field to become familiar with various strategies that are being used in the classroom and additionally, allows them to be adept in knowing which strategies are effective and which are not.
Obenchain and Taylor (2005) discuss three commonly used behavioral intervention strategies: planned ignoring or extinction, escape conditioning, and shaping behaviors. Planned ignoring or extinction can be an effective technique when used properly. It is commonly used for minor behavior issues such as whispering or a student calling out without raising his or her hand. The principle of this strategy is that by ignoring the behavior, the behavior will diminish. Often times, in a situation where a student is repeatedly speaking out without raising his or her hand, the teacher will reinforce this behavior by acknowledging the student. Planned ignoring is only effective if the teacher follows through, and does not acknowledge the student’s behavior. Obenchain and Taylor (2005) suggest using a reinforcer until the behavior becomes one that is continuously reinforced, thus making extinction easier to implement.
The principle of escape conditioning or negative reinforcement is that when the stimulus of a situation is removed, the likelihood of a behavior occurring again will increase. Removal of a problem student serves as a temporary solution to a problem that will reoccur when the student is readmitted into the classroom. Obenchain and Taylor (2005) suggest that instead of removing the student, find an additional route or strategy that offers a solution to the problem, as a displacement of the student will only prolong the problem.
Positive reinforcement is a strategy that can be used to shape behaviors. The principle of this strategy is that the teacher continues to reinforce behavior that is close to the desired behavior until that behavior is achieved. This strategy may be misused if a teacher reinforces undesirable behavior or fails to use shaping as a method to strengthen the behavior. When using this method, teachers must pay close attention to the pace in which they move to shape the behavior and the steps in which they implement behavior shaping.
In order to avoid the pitfalls of misused strategies when dealing with classroom behavior issues, teachers must first analyze the behavior before reacting to it. A commonly used method to assess student behavior is to look for “A-B-C’s”-that is, the antecedent, the behavior and the consequence.
This research offers excellent suggestions for preservice teachers and current educators on how to deal with classroom behavior issues. Behavior issues in the classroom are becoming more complex as we enter a time when a number of psychosocial, socioemotional, socioeconomic, and other factors are becoming more prevalent in today’s youth. It is inherently important that educators are adept in knowing how to properly handle behavior issues in order to provide an effective learning environment.
I enjoyed reading the posting of the article dealing with classroom design. It is really interesting how complex classroom design can be and exactly how many facets are involved that may contribute to a more effective learning environment. I know that in my high school, all of the computers are in the library and teachers have to sign up to use them. I have seen similar methods at other high schools. When I was substituting last year, a few different elementary classrooms that I subbed for had 3-4 computers available to the students right in the classroom. This did not seem uncommon in elementary schools. Also, natural light does seem to be a big one. It is always nice to have a window room. I observed a middle school classroom today and the teacher used soft background music as a means of calming the students while they were working on poetry. This seemed to be quite effective.
Steve's article was quite interesting. I know from personal experience, a sense of community and the development of a caring attitude go hand in hand. When I was in middle school, my teachers taught in a place-based learning style which sought to break down the wall between the classroom and the community. An example would be that we were involved in testing the pH levels in local lakes. We supplied this information to the local watershed organization. Such hands-on activities as this allowed us to learn about the community in which we lived in, work with adults and professionals within the community and develop a sense of caring and rootedness in our local community and culture. In addition, this gave us (students) a sense of ownership and accomplishment for the work that we had achieved.
I have been reading "The First Days of School and it has been very enlightening. The book is really designed for first year teachers but has a great deal of info for others who want to improve themselves.
While the book does deal with a lot of things having to do with setting up your classroom, dressing for your classroom and how to prepare better lessons, along with other things, it spends many pages on managing the behind the scenes things such as attendance records, recording grades, seating assignments and other things that you might not think about. The book does point out that if you, the teacher, are not organized then it may affect how well you teach and manage your classes.
As I observe other teachers. I have been looking at ways where these lessons can help me or how I can use these ideas in my future classroom.
My other professional reading has been from "Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in the classrooms" by Marshall Arlin. In this article Arlin did research to see how much lesson progression is affected by good and bad transitions from one activity to the next. He points out that an unprepared teacher may have difficulty keeping the attention of the students if too much time is spent between activities. He also says that a teacher who has to backtrack and refer to the previous activity tends to lose the attention of the students.
Arlin also looked at things like the how the quickly the teacher keeps things moving or the pace of the class. He points out that if the class moves too slowly some kids may be bored but if it moves to fast others may be lost. He points out that the teacher must continuously monitor the class to make sure all of the students are actively engaged but not lost or bored.
Self -Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being By Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci University of Rochester
Summary by Tina Fisher
This article discusses research regarding our motivations for accomplishing goals. Richard Ryan and Edward Deci investigate the conditions that promote vital, curious, and creative individuals in polar comparison to those that foster apathy and irresponsibility. These topics are approached first by explaining the Self Determination Theory, then the nature of motivation, the facilitation of these factors, and finally basic psychological needs. Self-Determination Theory or SDT, is based on the importance of “human’s evolved inner resources for personality development” and internal monitoring. SDT has determined three psychological needs for healthy social development: Competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Competence refers to the individual’s belief that they are adequate and apt, relatedness concerns one’s sense of belonging or connection to a social group, and autonomy is the need for a sense of choice and importance. Ryan and Deci describe the nature of motivation, as formed by intrinsic (self-directed) or extrinsic (outside) forces. “People can be motivated because they value the activity or because there is strong external coercion”, Ryan says. If one behaves out of self-interest instead of coerced by outside control, then creativity, persistence, and performance are maximized. Deci points out that humans are naturally endowed with tendencies towards novelty and challenge. In order to encourage this behavior, choice, acknowledgement of feelings, and opportunities for self-direction are crucial. Threats, deadlines, directives, pressured evaluations, and imposed goals are all said to diminish intrinsic motivation. The article is concluded with emphasis on basic psychological needs. Ryan and Deci note that self-determination and intrinsic motivation are hindered when social needs are not met. “…A social environment that affords competence but fails to nurture relatedness is expected to result in some impoverishment of well being,” says Deci. All three factors of SDT, competence, relatedness, and autonomy, are necessary for optimal social development and well-being. To make a really long story short, Ryan and Deci encourage a learning environment that is relationship based, offers choices, and is self-directed. Students will excel if they are personally connected to the process in which they learn. Allowing students to help set guidelines and focus for the class could promote intrinsic motivation and self-determination.
In response to Steve's blog, I have a teacher I'm working with who applies this student-created rule as a way to illustrate the way the Founding Father's created the Articles of Confederation, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. H ehad them come up with rules and then negotiate with the teacher to have those rules make it to the final class list. They enjoyed it and so far they seem to follow the rules with minimum reminders on what the rules are.
I also enjoyed the article on classrooms. it is interseting to note that different classrom set-ups work better in some cases but not others. The same goes for the teaching styles. Right now i am looking at how I can best set-up a room to support both a math class and history class since both have different needs.
I've also used "The First Days of School" as a good beginning-of-year resource. It has some great ideas for checklists of the things a teacher needs to prepare and plan to make the school year start well, and some good implementation ideas.
One of the articles I've read is "Preventing School Violence: A Plan for Safe and Engaging Schools," written by M.J. Furlong, E.D. Felix, J.D. Sharkley, and J. Larson. Although this article is vague as to specific activities and techniques which could be helpful in implementing a school violence prevention plan, the authors are deft at pointing out the need for a comprehensive five-step prevention plan:
1. The article suggests that any plan must begin with problem identification - - a needs assessment considering current problems and identifying future goals.
2. Next would come problem analysis, a goal-setting phase based on information collected in the identification phase.
3. Appropriate interventions must then be presented in a response proposals phase. These programs should be carefully chosen based on need rather than popularity.
4. Response implementation would be the action phase in which programs would be implemented based on student and staff member interest and motivation.
5. The final phase, evaluation of prevention strategies, must be a pre-planned reflection and assessment intended to evaluate the success of implemented strategies and thereby make improvements for continued violence prevention.
A primary target of the article is to encourage schools to address bullying as a pivotal factor in school violence. Training, the authors write, should be provided to all school staff members to help them become more aware of bullying problems on campus, increase their “understanding of the nature of bullying,” and provide them with strategies for addressing incidents of bullying. Optimal goals for reducing school violence should include improving the school climate, encouraging better peer relations at school, increasing student and adult support for victims of bullying, eliminating existing bullying, and preventing further cases. As a final note, the authors point out that a school’s human resources are key to preventing school violence - - only through the efforts of talented and energetic staff will such programs become successful. Planning and programming must therefore be structured around staff.
MANAGING SPACE, ENERGY, AND SELF: JUNIOR HIGH TEACHERS' EXPERIENCES OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT, by D.Tara Fenwick, 1998 TEACHING AND TEACHER EDUCATION, Vol 14, Pages 619-631.
Summary by Melissa Hesselbach
This article is based upon a study of how teachers in a grades 7-9 Catholic "separate" school in Edmunton, Alberta, Canada, manage their selves, the students energy and use the classroom structure to help manage and focus the energy of the students. The study involved 300 students and 37 staff. The information gathered and documented by observers as well as interview with the teachers, directly after the observations. The teachers were asked why they made the observed choices in managing the students. The responses led the author to make conclusions about the management techniques used by the teachers to propel the energies of the students in a direction which allows the students to evolve in age appropriate social and moral development as well as directing the energy toward preparation for high school and becoming functional adult citizens. Fenwick concludes three elements of classroom management were observed as related on pages 620-621, "First, teachers were managing the space: organizing objects, coordinating people's movement, creating the central structures determining practice and values, and shaping the community that unfolded in the classroom. Second, teachers were managing energy: balancing the various dynamics of adolescent emotion and physicality to create a psychologically safe place, while stimulating student interest and maintaining a 'flow' of engagement in classroom activity. Finally, teachers were managing the self in a dynamic that appeared crucial to teacher effectiveness: the ability to shape a strong but flexible teacher identity in relation to students. Although these dynamics are separated for the purposes of discussion, clearly they are entwined, interactive, and inextricable. I found the article to be very applicable to what teachers experience in the day to day classroom. I do question the fact that the study was performed in 1993, the article published in 1998 and whether or not the author had any direct connection to the study. Despite this question, I feel that my fellow students would benefit from reading this article in its entirety. I initially had trouble accessing this article. I made a request to the Rasmuson Library Off-Campus Library Service and over night received a link to a pdf copy of the article. A miracle.
I felt Tina's article by Ryan and Deci to be very interesting. In my classes I find that students are often not engaged in the project at hand. This will be illustrated by their lack of craftsmanship or their failure to follow proper procedure in the process, thereby leading to a failure of the project. Often, their failure to follow the procedure can have a direct affect on the work of their peers. An example being that if the clay is not properly wedged, the resulting article may blow up in the kiln damaging the work of their friends. After enlightening the student per their responsibilities, the student has found a "goal" or reason to follow proper procedure. Often, just taking the time as a teacher to be interested in the students' apparent lack of motivation, gives the student the recognition necessary to engage in the classwork.
THE SKILLED HELPER; A PROBLEM-MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO HELPING, 6TH EDITION by Gerard Egan
My second professional reading is a book I selected, because of the title. I find myself to have a tendency to help "too much" and I wanted to prevent this from happening in the classroom. The following quote from the introduction certainly caught my interest. ""The problem-management process and skills outlined in this book are even more valuable when used preventively(sic). When I ask parents how important---on a scale from 1 to 100--- interpersonal communication skills and competency in problem-management are for their children, they rate both near 100. But when I ask them how their children learn these skills, the hemming and hawing begin. After a while, i summarize what I am hearing. "We live in a society," I say, "in which these basic skills are extremely important, but we leave their development to chance." The development of these skills is too important to be left to any one social setting. Ideally, they would be taught, modeled, and reinforced in all social settings---family, peer groups, school, church, and community. We have the belief that these skills are essential for our children, but we do not have the social or political will to do much about it.""
Bibliographic Information: Tudge, J. R. H. (1992). Processes and consequences of peer collaboration: A Vygotskian analysis. Child Development, 63 1364-1379.
162 children between the ages of 5 and 9 were selected for the studies sample. The children were pre-tested to determine the method they used to solve a particular mathematical problem. The children were paired up and given a math concept to solve with multiple possible solution strategies. The children were given 2 individual post-tests.
This study suggests that those students with more competent partners exhibited greater improvements. Whether someone improves or not depends on whether the student uses the same strategy for solving the particular math concept as his/her partner. If pairs of student agree on how to approach a problem, they were far more likely to succeed.
I believe students benefit from mixed ability grouping. This allows for lower students to receive more attention, and this approach provides the more competent student with the challenge of assisting another student. Teachers should plan activities to minimize conflict in groups. This study demonstrates that partners who use different strategies for solving problems are less successful. Unless the point of an activity requires partners to debate a topic, students should not have differing opinions about how the task before them should be approached. As the famous adage goes, two captains sink a ship. Progress cannot be made by students insisting on doing two different things.
McMillan, James H., "Secondary Teachers’ Classroom Assessment and Grading Practices", Educational Measurement, Issues and Practice; Spring 2001; 20, 1; Wilson Education Abstracts.
reviewed by Willis Ferenbaugh
This article considers assessment and grading in secondary schools. The research is done across grades 6-12 in seven urban Virginia school districts. As more education research is done, more education techniques are used, and more accountability is demanded of teachers, it is worthwhile examining the current state of the the education business.
Teachers use a wide variety of assessment/grading approaches, but are there any patterns in who uses what? What types of assessment (quizzes, tests, homework, essays, projects) are used most frequently, and is this dependent on grade, subject, or other factors? Furthermore, are the assessments standardized or self-made? And finally, what are the factors used in determining grades?
This paper first reviews some previous studies of the topic. Then the results from the new research are presented: All 6-12 regular-classroom science, social studies, mathematics, and English teachers from 69 schools in seven urban/metro Virginia school districts contributed to the research survey. Each teacher provided information about important factors in assessment and grading.
For the current research, an exhaustive and somewhat excruciating review of the methodology is given, and would be well skipped by most readers. The large amount of numerical data is analyzed for principal components, the goal being to reduce the number of independent criteria by mathematically justified groupings. The math of this procedure is not really explained, which is probably merciful. Except that the math of this procedure is of limited validity unless the criteria are mathematically well-defined. And since the criteria are based on individual teacher interpretations, this is not strictly true.
After the math workout, it’s pointed out that “The results of the descriptive analyses essentially replicate, with a different approach, the findings from earlier research…” (28) These replicated findings can be summarized as: 1. Teachers use a “hodgepodge” of assessment strategies and grading techniques. 2. Almost all teachers use some “non-achievement” criteria as part of the grading method, even though this is not recommended by measurement specialists. 3. Teachers generally prefer to develop and use their own assessment materials and tests.
The second item is of particular interest, and several possible explanations are mentioned. Teachers may want to motivate and reward effort, not just success; or they may want to increase good grades and/or decrease failures.
Bibliographic Information: Myles B. S., & Simposn R. L. (1994). Prevention and management considerations for aggressive and violent children and youth. Education and Treatment of Children, 17, 370-384.
As this article points out, there are more and more aggressive and violent children in schools. Teachers feel under-prepared to deal with these students. Children who commit aggressive acts are more likely to be special ed. School resources for assisting students with behavior issues are less prevelant. These resources include professional development trainings, smaller class sizes, management consultants, and additional teacher planning time.
Many of the reasons for the increases in aggression and violence are beyond the control of the classroom teacher. Many of the circumstances above either require more money for education, the restructuring of education as we know it, the changing of our governments policies toward war and international aggressions, and cultural major shifts. The article, however, highlights a few strategires schools can take that will help their success with aggressive and violent students. Teachers should learn to recognize the warning signs of aggression, and problem-solve ways to avoid the situation getting out of hand. Teachers should make sure to defuse the situation while the student is still in the beginning stages of aggression. The signs for this include defensiveness and frustration. Teachers should make sure that their actions do not inadvertently escalate an escalated child. Teachers need to know what to do in the event of a crisis. Rules, consequences, and expectations should be clearly defined. The more structured the environment and the more prepared the teacher, the less likely a student’s frustration will result in aggression.
Teachers should model appropriate behavior and integrate character education. As a language arts teacher, I frequently ask moral dillema questions. These force students to think through morally difficult circumstances and determine and justify the most appropriate course of action. Schools should make sure they have a strict disciplinary procedure that forces children to take responsibility for their actions, sets clear expectations and consequences, and also creates a space for compassion. All children respond to strict, fair, and compassionate discipline. Students, whether aggressive or not, are rule testers. The more clearly articulated the rules and the more consistently these rules are enforced, the less problems the teachers/school will encounter. I am surprised that this article did not mention parent involvement. I believe that parent involvement is crucial to changing student behavior, whether academic behavior or physical behavior. I frequently talk to parents about the struggles and successes of their children. I have witnessed very dramatic behavior changes from students after talking to their parents.
For my second professional reading, I’ve been looking at a book by Lee Canter entitled "Parents on Your Side: A Comprehensive Parent Involvement Program for Teachers." This caught my eye because many parents in our village seem very detached from their childrens’ education. Many don’t even send their kids to school. Most appear to do little to encourage their children in their education. Most of the few staff at our school who have been around for more than a year have become quite embittered about this and very unhappy with the lack of parent support. And yet, during our parent-teacher conferences a few weeks ago, I was impressed to see parents of 36 of my 60 or so students in my room - - parents who really do care about their kids. I enjoyed speaking with every one of those parents. And I was struck by their looks of “hands-up-in-the-air-I-don’t-know-what-to-do-either-ness.” Especially with the older students, this was a problem. I’ve heard repetitive reports of students not sleeping at home, parents who haven’t seen their kids in days and who don’t have any control over their kids, and so on and so forth.
All this together, "Parents on Your Side" appears to be a valuable read because one of Canter’s primary focuses is that, in fact, parents don’t always know what to do. They may be trying their best but still not succeeding with their kids. Thus a great deal of a teacher’s job when involving parents is to help them understand how to help their kids. Communication with parents must be more than reporting behaviors - - it must also include suggestions and positive ideas on how the problems can be solved. In this way, teacher and parents can maintain a positive communication and partnership invested in the well-being of the student.
In the progress report on my 2nd professional reading, "Parents on Your Side" by Lee Canter, I mentioned that this book caught my interest because it offers techniques and concrete ideas on how to build up and maintain positive communication with parents, and specific techniques on how to work as a team to encourage good behavior on the part of the student. Here are some of the more eye-catching basics of Canter’s suggestions:
1. A teacher must have an effective attitude toward parent involvement.
An effective attitude has four main components. First, a teacher must realize the importance of parent support, since parents are the most important and influential people in a child’s life, they have the most one-on-one time with their children, and they can help back up the teachers on discipline. Second, teachers must always show their concern for the child. This means they don’t just report a problem and turn it over to the parents, but instead communicate regularly about both strengths and weaknesses of a child and always keep the child’s interests first in mind. The third component of an effective attitude is the old adage “put yourself in their shoes:” treat parents the way you would want to be treated. Always try to think about how you would feel if you were the child’s parent. What would be the best way to be approached? Finally, teachers must show professionalism and confidence, which means they involve the parents as much as possible, welcoming their ideas without becoming intimidated. In addition, they show that they know what they are doing. They never apologize for actions unless they are truly at fault, and they don’t show indecision or lack of ability.
2. A teacher must recognize roadblocks in working with parents.
Canter suggests that there are two main types of roadblocks to parent-teacher communication. Roadblocks that keep teachers from initiating communication include pressure for a teacher to handle all problems within the classroom and without outside help, negative expectations about parent involvement, and lack of training in working with parents. If teachers recognize these roadblocks, they can then begin to break through them and realize that each of these can be overcome. The second type of roadblock is that which keeps parents from supporting the teacher, including that parents are overwhelmed, don’t know how to help, have negative views of school (from personal experience), or have a negative view of teacher/school competence. By identifying these “parent support” roadblocks, teachers can more effectively communicate with parents by stating the roadblock clearly and then suggesting ideas for how to overcome it.
3. A teacher must begin communication before the school year begins, and then foster year-long positive communication with parents.
This may include a letter to parents including an introduction, classroom discipline plan, and homework policy. Teachers might also call parents before the school year starts. Back-to-School night may be more effective if teachers send individualized invitations, involve students in planning, use parent motivators to improve attendance, decorate the classroom with details of the students’ day like schedules, assignments, expectations, etc. . . . Canter is quick to suggest that positive communication is essential to parent involvement. This means parents might make positive phone calls when a child is doing well, or send home a positive note, good behavior message, or academic award. Birthday greetings, get-well cards and phone calls, and thank-you notes are equally appropriate to show concern and care for a child and their parents. Home visits are a very personal, great way to show concern (and should be scheduled ahead of time!). Another interesting idea Canter suggests is to work with students to create a weekly or bi-weekly classroom newsletter to highlight what is being done in class, upcoming projects and assignments, any outstanding work or students, and any special events taking place.
4. A teacher must help parents to help their children!
-Teachers can and should involve parents in homework. Canter provides a great homework tip handout for parents which suggests that the help their kids set up a quiet study area, create a homework survival kit with any necessary materials, schedule a daily homework time, encourage their children to work independently, and motivate children with praise. Once these are in place, communication should continue with positive homework notes to both parents and students. Blank notes can be sent home as well for parents to write to teachers. Test update slips can be sent to advise parents of when a test is coming so they can help their kids study. Homework assignment books can be used as well, and parents can be asked to sign daily homework.
-In case of a problem, teachers should contact parents as early as possible rather than waiting for the problem to bubble up, and should clearly document and file all incidents. Teachers should be ready to help parents deal with the difficulties of helping their kids - - if the parents are interested in hearing. Canter suggests, for example, the “broken-record” method. Parents should calmly and clearly tell their child what is expected of him and her. If and when the child argues, the parents should avoid argument by repeating their expectations - - 3 times at most - - and then stop. Decide on a disciplinary action ahead of time (including duration), and then be regular with it. If the child does not meet expectations, then the discipline should happen each time until behavior changes. Parents should be ready for times when a child tries to manipulate them by crying, getting angry, or becoming defiant. Finally, parents should work hard to catch their children being good, and then praise and reward them for it.
-Another great idea suggested in "Parents on Your Side" is the Home-School Contract. This is a document to encourage behavior change that should be written together with the student, parents, and teachers. It should explain the desired behavior change and then suggest two or three rewards that will be given to the student by the parent and then by the teacher if the behavior changes. In turn, it will also suggest two or three consequences that will be given by the parents and the teacher for each day the behavior does not change. All parties should agree to and sign the contract before implementation.
In sum, "Parents on Your Side" has a lot of very useful, concrete suggestions for how to get parents involved in their child’s education. I really appreciate the handout formats included at the end of the book. I understand that parents are crucial in education, but I’ve been wondering how to better involve them and get them interested and comfortable with our classroom. Canter’s suggestions are a great starting point from which to begin.
I enjoyed Mithril’s second reading post. I believe that a parent’s involvement in their child’s education is often critical to the student’s success. I also feel that getting parents to become involved is not always easy and Mithril listed some good suggestions that it feel would be helpful. I think that this book would be a good one to add to my collection and I would like to thank Mithril for posting it so that I could learn about it. Alisha
My second professional reading article is School Climate and Learning in Best practice Briefs, Michigan State University, December 2004
In this article focuses on how a schools culture and climate can either support or impede learning. This article gives a clear description of what it means by school culture and climate and how they can support or impede learning. According to this paper, school culture is the shared ideas, assumptions, values and beliefs of those involved in the schools. The culture of the school affects what the individuals in the school feel is expected of them as well as what they feel is acceptable behavior for others. Some important factors that make a schools culture supportive to learning are as follows. First, the building must be arranged in a way that supports students’ needs. Secondly, School administrators, teachers, students, and parents participate in the decision making process. Thirdly those in the school must believe the following things: all students can learn, all parents what their kids to succeed and parent are partners in their student’s education. According to the paper school climate is the way that the teachers and students feel about being at school each day. There are four aspects which can affect the schools climate. These aspects are physical environment, social environment, affective environment, and academic environment. According to this paper the: Physical environment supports learning when it is not over crowded, when the students feel safe, when the school building is orderly, clean, and each part is well designed for its use. The social environment is supportive of learning when interactions are encouraged between teachers, students, and parents, when teachers participate in on-site decisions, when students’ suggestions are taken seriously and when staff and students are trained to prevent and resolve conflicts. The Affective environment supports learning when teachers and staff have high moral, when everyone treats other with respect and value, when friendliness is apparent, and when everyone feels that they are an important part of the school. The Academic environment is supportive of learning when academics are emphasized. But in addition to emphasis on academics each student’s education should be well rounded, expectations should be kept high and student progress should be monitored. It goes on to state the importance of prompt feedback on assessments and the importance of using these assessments not only to evaluate students but also use the assessments to improve and adapt lessons. Another part of having an academic environment that supports learning is to have confident and knowledgeable teachers who are prepared for the classes that they teach. The paper continues on to explain how school climate effects performance and it gives the number of studies that the Search Institute have performed that showed connections between school climate and student success with higher grades, engagement, attendance, expectations, and aspirations, higher self-esteem and self-concept, less anxiety, depression and loneliness, and less substance abuse. After stating the benefits of a positive school climate it refers the reader to the appendix where there are some tools to help determine the climate a school. The paper concludes with a list of ways that different individuals in the school can make appropriate changes to different areas of a schools climate. From this paper, I learned some things that I can use to create a positive climate in my classroom by making it a safe, inviting place where all students are respected and made to feel that they are an important part of their education as well an important part of the school.
For my second professional reading I read: “Constructivist Philosophy and Cooperative Learning Practice: Toward Integration and Reconciliation in Secondary Classrooms”. Vermette, Paul; Foote, Chandra. American Secondary Education 30 (1) Fall 2001.
Constructivist teaching strategies and cooperative learning are both becoming more prevalent in classrooms. However, sometimes these are not clearly understood and mistakenly equated with one another. This article reviews common models of cooperative learning and examines how they can be used as part of a constructivist teaching practice.
The article begins with a review of common cooperative learning models of which these are some examples: • Jigsaw – Students are placed in groups with each member responsible for mastering unique and specific information on a topic. • Student Team-Achievement – A competitive model, in which students meet in a team to master content of a lesson. Student test individually, and the tests are scored on improvement over previous tests. The team with the most improvement is recognized • Group Investigation – Each group selects a project to learn about and demonstrate mastery of a subject. The group divides the project into individual tasks and come together to complete the project. • Academic Controversy - A group is divided in half, with each side responsible for researching opposing positions on a topic. Students present their position and have a chance to debate with the other side. Afterwards the students must present the opinions of the opposing side. Finally the team creates a joint position paper.
While cooperative learning has much in common with constructivism, not all cooperative learning activities are constructivist. The authors list 4 tenets that are central to a constructivist approach. • Students learn through personally organizing content material and making meaning of it. • Students engage in classroom-wide dialogue to internalize knowledge • Students recognize that knowledge is created by people and thus influenced by culture, values, and prior experiences. • Instructional practice includes activities such as problem-based learning, dialogues, and authentic assessment.
Cooperative learning activities in which the teacher chooses the content objectives and students are seeking a standardized body of knowledge are not representive of constructivist principles. The authors cite the Jigsaw and Student Team Achievement models as examples of cooperative learning activities which are often not constructivist. The Group Investigation and Academic Controversy models are cited as examples which tend to be more constructivist because they ask student so generate questions and answers independently and require analysis and reflection.
In conclusion, the authors portray constructivism as an effective strategy to have students meaningfully engage content and seek a depth of understanding. Further, they want teachers to reflect on their use of cooperative learning and make it more effective through implementing constructivist strategies.
Mueller, C. M., and C. S. Dweck, Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine Children’s Motivation and Performance, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1998, pp 33-52.
reviewed by Willis Ferenbaugh
This article describes research and pondering into the effects of praise on students. Specifically, the authors consider the different consequences of praise for intelligence and praise for effort. Conjectures are made, and the results of some previous research are summarized. Then the new studies are described and analyzed.
The main hypothesis is that praise for intelligence (or “praise for ability”) has some negative effects. There are two proposed negative results. First, students may turn away from learning-oriented goals and toward achievement goals (a seemingly likely outcome for standard scoring-based schooling). Second, students may believe that scores are measures of innate “ability,” and therefore, regardless of how they like their scores, they may feel like they are unchangeable characteristics of themselves.
To test their basic hypotheses, six elaborate studies were conducted with groups of fifth-grade students. In each study, students were broken into groups and given problems to solve. Then the solutions were scored, and the results were given back to the students. Results were accompanied by 3 kinds of feedback: praised ability, praised effort, or no praise at all. In every case, students were told that they had gotten a particular score, regardless of the actual results. (Every study involved a later debriefing of the students, during which the students were apprised of their status as misled guinea pigs. The hope is that the study would benefit educators without scarring the test subjects.)
Various procedures were used to probe the effects of the praise. Further problems were given to see changes in success rate. Questions were asked of the students about their results and what caused any later setbacks. (For the most part, students who were praised for ability later blamed their lack of ability, and students who were praised for effort were more likely to blame their lack of effort.) Results and interviews were also used to see how students dealt with later setbacks.
As is standard in these big studies, extensive statistical analysis was done with the results. In this paper, the procedures themselves seem to be more suspect than the analysis. (Some results seem to measure the correspondence of the praise with the subsequent student parroting of that praise.) However the variation in the techniques used alleviates specific questionable results. The statistics seems to be a fair way to quantify the results and wring information from them.
And the wrung information supports previous research and one of the initial speculations: That praise for intelligence and ability may tend to undermine some of the real goals of education. The researchers suggest that something can be learned from the preferred response to negative behaviour: “Blame the deed not the doer.” Positive results should be reinforced, but this should be done by praising effort (the deed) and not innate ability.
The Skilled Helper, A Problem-Management Approach to Helping; Sixth edition by Gerard Egan The Skilled Helper should be considered an excellent reference for the educator to have close at hand. The table of content is a book in itself. Each Stage, Part, and Chapter is itemized for easy reference, to deal with specific situations which will arise in a school environment. This book contains 344 pages of 15 chapters full of issues and strategies. This tome held so much information I could not possibly read and internalize it as a whole. Gerard Egan cautions that his book should not be used as a “bible”, but only as one way to impart and empower your client, patient or student in taking control, making beneficial choices and thinking with forethought about the consequences of their choices. The “helper” is not dictating solutions but assisting the subject in guiding their own lives in appropriate and empowering response to their environment. As a student, I found it hard to consider reading this book cover to cover. If I my goal were to become a psychologist by profession it would be on my “must read” list. I am very happy to have chosen this to read as my professional article for this assignment as it has introduced me to a helpful resource in my teaching career. I especially related to Part 4, Stage III, Helping Clients Determine What They Need and Want. This chapter brings together a strategy for planning of which I have found useful in guiding my own life choices. The strategy requires that the subject consider two questions: What do I want? and What do I have to do to get what I want? Considering these two questions are the beginning of organization of thought and solutions to problems. Setting clear goals can focus students’ attention and action. Give your class a rubric at the beginning of a lesson and not at the end. Clear goals can mobilize students’ energy and effort toward an end or a “bigger picture.” Setting clear goals can motivate students to search for strategies and problem solving toward accomplishment of those goals.
References Thompson, G. (1994). Discipline and the high school teacher. Clearing House, 67, 261-269.
Thompson (1994) identifies two different types of behavior: caused and purposive. His research also distinguishes between real and perceived discipline problems. In addition, the author defines the threshold of tolerance and the need for a positive classroom climate. The purpose of this research is to identify the types of behavior present in the classroom as a precursor to identifying a disciplinary action. Thompson (1994) identifies two different types of behavior: caused and purposive, that is, the behavior either has a cause or a purpose. The author offers the example of a student misbehaving as a means of getting attention. Although the attention that the student receives is negative, the need is still met. Thompson also notes that by the teacher reacting, the teacher is reinforcing this behavior. Often times, the teacher will be unable to identify the cause of the misbehavior. Misbehavior can stem from a wide array of sources; for example, a student may have come to school without eating breakfast. Thompson suggests that when the cause of misbehavior is unidentifiable, the teacher should make every attempt to identify it. Thompson (1994) also distinguishes between “real” and “perceived” discipline problems. Thompson defines a “real” discipline problem as one that “arises because a student is infringing on the real freedoms of the teacher or other members of the class.” A “perceived” discipline problem is one for which “the teacher in a very real sense is the cause because he or she perceives a problem when, in fact, there actually is none.” In a classroom, the greater amount of discipline problems that a teacher perceives, the greater amount of discipline problems will exist. This is in direct correlation to what Thompson denotes as a teacher’s threshold of tolerance. A teacher’s threshold of tolerance is in part, based on the teacher’s personality. Thompson warns against overreacting with misbehavior by enforcing disciplinary action when it is unnecessary. What a teacher deems “unnecessary” determines his/her threshold of tolerance. Thompson provides the example of a student rumpling a piece of paper in the classroom. By identifying this behavior, the teacher disrupts other students in the classroom and defines this as a discipline problem. Thompson says that the teacher must choose his/her battles in that in order for the disciplinary action to be effective, the disruption to the class must be greater than the correction of the disruption. In addition, Thompson notes that classroom discipline problems can be minimized by giving students as many opportunities for independent behavior as they can handle and by accepting the student regardless of his or her behavioral issues. Thompson stresses the importance of a positive learning environment as high school students today are faced with increasing demands. He promotes the implementation of preventative disciplinary approaches. Instead of overreacting if a student is passing a note in class, Thompson recommends simply taking the note, tearing it up, and throwing it away. Also, he notes that teachers need to be aware of the individual situations and types of students that they are working with, in particular, students with maladaptive behavior that may be the result of a deeper emotional problem. Finally, it is important to remember one’s role as a teacher, not a friend of the students. It is important to establish one’s role as a teacher early on as students appreciate having an adult role model that holds clear expectations in the classroom. The development of an understanding of student behavior in the classroom plays an essential role in promoting a positive classroom climate. Through the development of a safe classroom environment, teachers and students alike will place learning at the forefront, creating effective teaching and learning practices.
Fenwick, Tara. "Balancing on the Edge of Surprise: Managing Junior High Classrooms." Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education, June 4-7, 1996, Ontario, Canada. ERIC. OCLC. U of AK, Fairbanks, Rasmunson Lib. 1 Dec. 2007
In a presentation for a conference of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education Dr. Tara Fenwick explains her research on junior high classroom management. The question she set out to answer in her paper is “what is it that teacher’s manage, and see themselves managing (2)?” She groups her findings into three categories: space, energy and self. This paper is based on a large qualitative case study done on a catholic school in Edmonton that had been deemed “successful” by representatives of the community and district. In the study they methodology used to compile data was observation, interviews, and the study of documents. The study builds on research already done about how and why teachers make the decisions they do. Fenwick and her team found that they could categorize what teachers manage into three distinct but interrelated groups: space, energy, and self. Teachers managed space by organizing objects, coordinating student’s movements, creating structures that determine practice and values, and forming classroom community. Teachers manage energy by “balancing the various dynamics of adolescent emotion and physically to create a psychologically safe place, while stimulating student interest” and maintaining student engagement (13). The third and possibly most important in being an effective teacher, is managing self; to create a “strong but flexible teacher identity in relation to students (14).” To deal with the unique amount of energy that surrounds junior high students they also identified that good teacher would “manage” this energy by 1.“watch[ing] and interpret[ing] the energy continually, alter[ing] their plans, react[ing] spontaneously to surprises, and make[ing] choices to act and speak quickly and constantly (22);” 2. keeping the pace fast and removing visual and tactile access to any thing that may distract students; 3. being flexible with students who struggle because of personality, capability, and stage of maturity; 4. keeping records of absences, behaviors, and homework.
Fenwick’s research is important because it explains three key areas of management that good teachers all have: space, energy, and self. She does a thorough job in explaining what these areas are comprised of as well as how junior high classrooms are different and must be managed with a focus on energy. Future research in this area could include how can these areas of management be taught, if they can be. or how this management may look in different subject areas.
Emmer, Edmund T, and Carolyn M Evertson. Effective Classroom Management at the Beginning of the School Year. Austin, TX: Texas Univ. , 1979. ERIC. OCLC. U of AK, Fairbanks. 6 Dec. 2007
In Edmund Emmer and Carolyn Evertson’s article they focus on what do teachers who are effective managers do at the beginning of the school year. They predicted that beginning of the year activities are crucial to managing a class for the rest of the year. This was surmised based upon published research on the deviant student behavior and teacher responses to it. Emmer and Evertson observed classrooms at the beginning of the school year for the first few weeks and then periodically throughout the year. Narrative records and other descriptive data was collected and compared to determine which teachers were more effective managers and which were less effective managers. Descriptive data was collected using the Student Engagement Rating (SER and the Component Rating systems. After classifying the teachers they analyzed the data and found significant differences in what more effective managers did compared to less effective managers. Good managers spent the first three weeks teaching students how to behave and reminding them of the rules. Procedures were established early and directions were given clearly both verbally and visually and often taught in a step by step manner. Some teachers used procedures and others incentives for good behavior and most taught students specific signals to respond to. These teachers were recorded as making eye contact often and stopping inappropriate behavior immediately. Teachers who were less effective managers were lacking in thought out procedures. For example, one teacher had no procedure for using the pencil sharpener and students would get up whenever they felt like it to use the sharpener, often distracting the class. Some of these teacher tried methods that worked for effective managers but they did not follow through with them and would allow students to ignore instructions. These teachers were also observed to be ineffectual monitors of the classroom, less likely to establish eye contact with students. They were more likely to make threats or warn students of consequences but not follow through and also to ignore or take longer to respond to inappropriate student behavior. Emmer and Evertson’s prediction that early activities in the classroom are crucial to effective management was demonstrated to have validity. Their work makes clear the importance of establishing rules and procedures early on in the classroom. Teachers who did not do this struggled all year with classroom management.
Tina Fisher EDSC 658 Armstrong Professional Reading #2 Oct. 9th, 2007 Service-Learning; A Language of “We” By Pamela G. Taylor & Christine Ballengee- Morris from Art Education magazine, September 2004. Service-learning is described as a “structured and theoretically grounded practice in which service experiences are directly connected to academic objectives” (Ballengee & Morris 6). This article overviews the underlying principles of this practice in six different “we” categories: We plan, learn, reflect, trust, hope, and care. The planning part of service-learning projects begins with recognizing a need in the community. To ensure mutual benefits for every party involved, the planning efforts must be collaborative. “We cannot tell someone what they need, just as they cannot dictate what our needs are or will be” (Ballengee &Morris 6). Once the need is recognized and a plan developed, a working balance of everyone’s skills, expertise, and desires for involvement should be considered. In a service-learning program, the goals may begin very simply--to provide art-making experiences for children and provide art-teaching experiences for volunteers. The learning element of service-learning projects is expressed in the symbolic use of the hyphen between the word “service” and “learning”. “The hyphen represents the reciprocal nature of service-learning in which both the students and the community learn from each other. Assessment of learning in service projects is often found in reflective journaling of the experience. Reflection during service- learning may happen in various forms including discussion, writing, exhibition, games, or critique. Journaling about specific thoughts and feeling during a project help to further reflection often allowing “old and sometimes damaging ideas and stereotypes let go”. It is important to provide a safe and supportive space for critical self-reflection. This leads to the next element of trust in service-learning projects. Trust is developed through each participant’s sense of commitment to the project. “Single service acts rarely promote a value for sustained social and civic responsibility. To promote trust between all parties involved, projects need to be either ongoing or touted as a weekly, monthly, or yearly event. Allowing for a lengthier period of time also ensures that changes can be made to adjust accordingly to everyone’s needs involved. Hope is another key element in service- learning projects. The hope is that an enduring sense of civic responsibility, that service “becomes just as habitual as brushing our teeth in the morning”. Teachers have the understanding that they are modeling for students, a way of life, not just a lesson. “Through such experiences we may learn to see the world not as a static reality in which we must function according to the rules and values of the dominant culture, but as a process of transformation”. Finally, care is necessary for successful service-learning projects. Can care be taught? Taylor and Ballange say they are not sure, but they want to see a marked difference in the approach of their students from “something must be done” to “I must do something”.
The “First Days of School “ describes things teachers should do in preparation for the first days of school. It describes setting up grade books, classrooms, bulletin boards and really anything having to do with the classroom and making sure it is ready for students to show up for their class. Suggests that students be assigned a seat so that the teacher can learn their names quicker. Along with preparation, the book talks about what the teacher should do after the school year begins. Things like greeting the students out in the hall with a smile and their name. The teacher can also have a syllabus ready to pass out so the students know where the class is going with the subject. There are suggestions for the teacher to get to know the students so there is a connection between the student and teacher. I found the book to be helpful in that it gives teachers suggestions that can help ease students into the classroom. It also has inputs from teachers who have tried some of the items or used the book so it adds another level of certainty that some of the ideas might actually work or be helpful. I have also tried to use the suggestion of learning the students names not only to know them I the classroom but also as I see them in the hall, which tends to be trickier since I may hear a “hello” and turn around to see a student from a class but the name doesn’t come fast enough and all I get out is a “hey.” The book offers a great deal of things I can do and try to improve my classroom when I get one. It would also be a source I can turn to when I am looking for things to try to help the students and break up times when it gets monotonous. It will also be a source that I can refer to as I evaluate my management plan and see what suggestions there are I making my classroom safer and better learning environment,
29 comments:
The article I am reviewing is "From Tourists to Citizens in the Classroom", by H. Jerome Freiberg. It was originally published in Educational Leadership v54, p32-36 1996.
The article highlights a program (Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline) which seeks to turn students from being tourists (students that simply pass through without involvement, commitment, or belonging) to citizens (students who are active participants in their education). This program, which has been used with over 10,000 students in Texas, is based around 5 themes: prevention, caring, cooperation, organization, and community. Each theme includes strategies and activities designed to lead students to become real partners in the classroom. Prevention involves establishing high expectations and a consistent but not too rigid enforcement. The article gives the example of having students and teachers create a class constitution which everyone signs. Caring involves creating a climate where students feel valued. Examples of this are practicing respectful discourse, celebrating birthdays and student achievements, and having administrators enter the classroom to help teach. Cooperation is based around creating a climate of "helping, sharing, participating, planning, and working together". Organization is closely related to this. It involves creating a classroom of mutual responsibility by assigning roles to students with in the classroom. In their example, students apply for these jobs, which are rotated periodically. The last theme is community, which involves finding ways to bring the community into the classroom. Some of the examples given were having parents come into talk about how class rules relate to work rules, scheduling field trips with business mentors, having teachers send postcards to parents with positive notes. The article concludes with citing positive results where the program has been implemented. Research comparing schools who are using this program with ones who aren't, has shown increased student involvement, task orientation, teacher and student expectations, achievement motivation, and academic self-concept.
The goal of this program is an essential one, leading students to becoming active participants in their education. While the article was brief and didn't go into great detail, it outlined some broad strategies for achieving this which I felt were very good ideas, such as: creating a democratic classroom, in which students develop classroom rule and expectations of behavior; establishing a climate where students feel personally valued, and are encouraged to help each other; assigning students role to promote leadership and a sense of shared responsibility; and involving the community in the classroom. One thing I think is important to note is that this program wasn't just trying to implement these strategies in individual classrooms, but rather as a school wide initiative, where students will be encouraged to become involved at every step in their school career from K-12. The desirable outcomes are something that are developed and constantly reinforced over time. I personally feel that a high level of student involvement is the key to a successful classroom, both in terms of achievement and management, and I will look for ways to implement some of the themes discussed in this article in my classrooms.
My first professional reading for EDSC 658 is the article Classrooms by Dan Butin. National Clearinghouse for educational Facilities July 2000
This article discusses classroom design and gives a brief historical look at some trends in classrooms layouts. The Lancastrian design (which used the bleacher style seating) was popular during the early 20th century. The rectangular classrooms that we are most likely familiar with became popular in the 1920’s and other than a short time in the 1970’s when open classrooms were tried in some classes it continues to be the norm. The most effective classroom design seems to be under constant debate but according to this article the basic trends are leaning toward a more student centered approach.
The article deals with incorporating technology into the classroom and how this technology needs more space to accommodate computer workstations as well as more wiring for voice, video, data, and wireless capabilities. It goes on to state that 15% more space should be added to the average classroom size of 750-1200 square feet. Lighting is another area that the article covers and it states research has shown that natural light can reduce off-task behavior, absence, and depression. If natural light is not available the next best option is a combination of indirect and task lighting that can be adjusted. When furnishing the classroom, it is recommended that the student desks having storage and student chairs being ergonomically designed, padded, and adjustable. Tables should be available for small or large group, and project-centered work and computers workstations should be in clustered in carrels. It also states that movable and lockable storage space makes for more flexibility in classroom activities. The final suggestion on furnishing the classroom was that the teacher desk should be ample, have lockable storage space and computer connected to a modem, and should be either be out side that classroom of on the periphery. The classroom as a whole should have a length to width ratio of 3:2 and have at least 9-foot ceilings and should be able to accommodate seating either in rows, small clusters or U shape arrangements.
The article also covers some principles of classroom design which include: being accessible to the outdoors which not only allows natural light in through visual access but also would allow for an alternate place for small or large groups to meet and do work. Classrooms should also be clustered around a common area to encourage a sense of community and cohesiveness. It is also important to create a classroom that fosters creativity and engagement and one should keep in mind that it must be a place that will be able to adapt to accommodate changes in technology and teaching styles over several decades.
The article ends by saying that a classroom should be thought of as place “where knowledge can be discussed and discovered rather than a space where knowledge is transferred from teacher to student”.
I enjoyed reading the reveiw on "From tourist to citizens in the classroom" I like the idea of helping students become more active participants in their education.
Reference:
Obenchain, K.M. and Taylor, S.S. (2005). Behavior Management: Making it work in middle and secondary schools. The Clearing House, 79, 7-11.
Behavior Management: Making it Work in Middle and Secondary Schools by Obenchain and Taylor (2005) focuses on commonly misused techniques for addressing behavior in the classroom and offers suggestions for correcting those techniques. Specifically, this article focuses on three different behavior intervention strategies in which teacher intervention plays an important and necessary role. The article poses the question, how do teachers resist falling victim to misuse of behavioral strategies?
Research in the area of behavior management as a component of classroom management has been evolving for years. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner first outlined the basic principles used in classroom behavior interventions in 1953. His findings laid the groundwork for continued research in this field. Skinner’s contributions, along with continued research in the field of behaviorism, allows preservice teachers entering the field to become familiar with various strategies that are being used in the classroom and additionally, allows them to be adept in knowing which strategies are effective and which are not.
Obenchain and Taylor (2005) discuss three commonly used behavioral intervention strategies: planned ignoring or extinction, escape conditioning, and shaping behaviors. Planned ignoring or extinction can be an effective technique when used properly. It is commonly used for minor behavior issues such as whispering or a student calling out without raising his or her hand. The principle of this strategy is that by ignoring the behavior, the behavior will diminish. Often times, in a situation where a student is repeatedly speaking out without raising his or her hand, the teacher will reinforce this behavior by acknowledging the student. Planned ignoring is only effective if the teacher follows through, and does not acknowledge the student’s behavior. Obenchain and Taylor (2005) suggest using a reinforcer until the behavior becomes one that is continuously reinforced, thus making extinction easier to implement.
The principle of escape conditioning or negative reinforcement is that when the stimulus of a situation is removed, the likelihood of a behavior occurring again will increase. Removal of a problem student serves as a temporary solution to a problem that will reoccur when the student is readmitted into the classroom. Obenchain and Taylor (2005) suggest that instead of removing the student, find an additional route or strategy that offers a solution to the problem, as a displacement of the student will only prolong the problem.
Positive reinforcement is a strategy that can be used to shape behaviors. The principle of this strategy is that the teacher continues to reinforce behavior that is close to the desired behavior until that behavior is achieved. This strategy may be misused if a teacher reinforces undesirable behavior or fails to use shaping as a method to strengthen the behavior. When using this method, teachers must pay close attention to the pace in which they move to shape the behavior and the steps in which they implement behavior shaping.
In order to avoid the pitfalls of misused strategies when dealing with classroom behavior issues, teachers must first analyze the behavior before reacting to it. A commonly used method to assess student behavior is to look for “A-B-C’s”-that is, the antecedent, the behavior and the consequence.
This research offers excellent suggestions for preservice teachers and current educators on how to deal with classroom behavior issues. Behavior issues in the classroom are becoming more complex as we enter a time when a number of psychosocial, socioemotional, socioeconomic, and other factors are becoming more prevalent in today’s youth. It is inherently important that educators are adept in knowing how to properly handle behavior issues in order to provide an effective learning environment.
I enjoyed reading the posting of the article dealing with classroom design. It is really interesting how complex classroom design can be and exactly how many facets are involved that may contribute to a more effective learning environment. I know that in my high school, all of the computers are in the library and teachers have to sign up to use them. I have seen similar methods at other high schools. When I was substituting last year, a few different elementary classrooms that I subbed for had 3-4 computers available to the students right in the classroom. This did not seem uncommon in elementary schools. Also, natural light does seem to be a big one. It is always nice to have a window room. I observed a middle school classroom today and the teacher used soft background music as a means of calming the students while they were working on poetry. This seemed to be quite effective.
Steve's article was quite interesting. I know from personal experience, a sense of community and the development of a caring attitude go hand in hand. When I was in middle school, my teachers taught in a place-based learning style which sought to break down the wall between the classroom and the community. An example would be that we were involved in testing the pH levels in local lakes. We supplied this information to the local watershed organization. Such hands-on activities as this allowed us to learn about the community in which we lived in, work with adults and professionals within the community and develop a sense of caring and rootedness in our local community and culture. In addition, this gave us (students) a sense of ownership and accomplishment for the work that we had achieved.
I have been reading "The First Days of School and it has been very enlightening. The book is really designed for first year teachers but has a great deal of info for others who want to improve themselves.
While the book does deal with a lot of things having to do with setting up your classroom, dressing for your classroom and how to prepare better lessons, along with other things, it spends many pages on managing the behind the scenes things such as attendance records, recording grades, seating assignments and other things that you might not think about. The book does point out that if you, the teacher, are not organized then it may affect how well you teach and manage your classes.
As I observe other teachers. I have been looking at ways where these lessons can help me or how I can use these ideas in my future classroom.
My other professional reading has been from "Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in the classrooms" by Marshall Arlin. In this article Arlin did research to see how much lesson progression is affected by good and bad transitions from one activity to the next. He points out that an unprepared teacher may have difficulty keeping the attention of the students if too much time is spent between activities. He also says that a teacher who has to backtrack and refer to the previous activity tends to lose the attention of the students.
Arlin also looked at things like the how the quickly the teacher keeps things moving or the pace of the class. He points out that if the class moves too slowly some kids may be bored but if it moves to fast others may be lost. He points out that the teacher must continuously monitor the class to make sure all of the students are actively engaged but not lost or bored.
Self -Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being
By Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci University of Rochester
Summary by Tina Fisher
This article discusses research regarding our motivations for accomplishing goals. Richard Ryan and Edward Deci investigate the conditions that promote vital, curious, and creative individuals in polar comparison to those that foster apathy and irresponsibility. These topics are approached first by explaining the Self Determination Theory, then the nature of motivation, the facilitation of these factors, and finally basic psychological needs.
Self-Determination Theory or SDT, is based on the importance of “human’s evolved inner resources for personality development” and internal monitoring. SDT has determined three psychological needs for healthy social development: Competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Competence refers to the individual’s belief that they are adequate and apt, relatedness concerns one’s sense of belonging or connection to a social group, and autonomy is the need for a sense of choice and importance.
Ryan and Deci describe the nature of motivation, as formed by intrinsic (self-directed) or extrinsic (outside) forces. “People can be motivated because they value the activity or because there is strong external coercion”, Ryan says. If one behaves out of self-interest instead of coerced by outside control, then creativity, persistence, and performance are maximized.
Deci points out that humans are naturally endowed with tendencies towards novelty and challenge. In order to encourage this behavior, choice, acknowledgement of feelings, and opportunities for self-direction are crucial. Threats, deadlines, directives, pressured evaluations, and imposed goals are all said to diminish intrinsic motivation.
The article is concluded with emphasis on basic psychological needs. Ryan and Deci note that self-determination and intrinsic motivation are hindered when social needs are not met. “…A social environment that affords competence but fails to nurture relatedness is expected to result in some impoverishment of well being,” says Deci. All three factors of SDT, competence, relatedness, and autonomy, are necessary for optimal social development and well-being.
To make a really long story short, Ryan and Deci encourage a learning environment that is relationship based, offers choices, and is self-directed. Students will excel if they are personally connected to the process in which they learn. Allowing students to help set guidelines and focus for the class could promote intrinsic motivation and self-determination.
In response to Steve's blog, I have a teacher I'm working with who applies this student-created rule as a way to illustrate the way the Founding Father's created the Articles of Confederation, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. H ehad them come up with rules and then negotiate with the teacher to have those rules make it to the final class list. They enjoyed it and so far they seem to follow the rules with minimum reminders on what the rules are.
I also enjoyed the article on classrooms. it is interseting to note that different classrom set-ups work better in some cases but not others. The same goes for the teaching styles. Right now i am looking at how I can best set-up a room to support both a math class and history class since both have different needs.
Hello all,
I've also used "The First Days of School" as a good beginning-of-year resource. It has some great ideas for checklists of the things a teacher needs to prepare and plan to make the school year start well, and some good implementation ideas.
One of the articles I've read is "Preventing School Violence: A Plan for Safe and Engaging Schools," written by M.J. Furlong, E.D. Felix, J.D. Sharkley, and J. Larson. Although this article is vague as to specific activities and techniques which could be helpful in implementing a school violence prevention plan, the authors are deft at pointing out the need for a comprehensive five-step prevention plan:
1. The article suggests that any plan must begin with problem identification - - a needs assessment considering current problems and identifying future goals.
2. Next would come problem analysis, a goal-setting phase based on information collected in the identification phase.
3. Appropriate interventions must then be presented in a response proposals phase. These programs should be carefully chosen based on need rather than popularity.
4. Response implementation would be the action phase in which programs would be implemented based on student and staff member interest and motivation.
5. The final phase, evaluation of prevention strategies, must be a pre-planned reflection and assessment intended to evaluate the success of implemented strategies and thereby make improvements for continued violence prevention.
A primary target of the article is to encourage schools to address bullying as a pivotal factor in school violence. Training, the authors write, should be provided to all school staff members to help them become more aware of bullying problems on campus, increase their “understanding of the nature of bullying,” and provide them with strategies for addressing incidents of bullying. Optimal goals for reducing school violence should include improving the school climate, encouraging better peer relations at school, increasing student and adult support for victims of bullying, eliminating existing bullying, and preventing further cases.
As a final note, the authors point out that a school’s human resources are key to preventing school violence - - only through the efforts of talented and energetic staff will such programs become successful. Planning and programming must therefore be structured around staff.
MANAGING SPACE, ENERGY, AND SELF: JUNIOR HIGH TEACHERS' EXPERIENCES OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT, by D.Tara Fenwick, 1998 TEACHING AND TEACHER EDUCATION, Vol 14, Pages 619-631.
Summary by Melissa Hesselbach
This article is based upon a study of how teachers in a grades 7-9 Catholic "separate" school in Edmunton, Alberta, Canada, manage their selves, the students energy and use the classroom structure to help manage and focus the energy of the students. The study involved 300 students and 37 staff.
The information gathered and documented by observers as well as interview with the teachers, directly after the observations. The teachers were asked why they made the observed choices in managing the students. The responses led the author to make conclusions about the management techniques used by the teachers to propel the energies of the students in a direction which allows the students to evolve in age appropriate social and moral development as well as directing the energy toward preparation for high school and becoming functional adult citizens.
Fenwick concludes three elements of classroom management were observed as related on pages 620-621, "First, teachers were managing the space: organizing objects, coordinating people's movement, creating the central structures determining practice and values, and shaping the community that unfolded in the classroom. Second, teachers were managing energy: balancing the various dynamics of adolescent emotion and physicality to create a psychologically safe place, while stimulating student interest and maintaining a 'flow' of engagement in classroom activity. Finally, teachers were managing the self in a dynamic that appeared crucial to teacher effectiveness: the ability to shape a strong but flexible teacher identity in relation to students. Although these dynamics are separated for the purposes of discussion, clearly they are entwined, interactive, and inextricable.
I found the article to be very applicable to what teachers experience in the day to day classroom. I do question the fact that the study was performed in 1993, the article published in 1998 and whether or not the author had any direct connection to the study. Despite this question, I feel that my fellow students would benefit from reading this article in its entirety.
I initially had trouble accessing this article. I made a request to the Rasmuson Library Off-Campus Library Service and over night received a link to a pdf copy of the article. A miracle.
I felt Tina's article by Ryan and Deci to be very interesting. In my classes I find that students are often not engaged in the project at hand. This will be illustrated by their lack of craftsmanship or their failure to follow proper procedure in the process, thereby leading to a failure of the
project. Often, their failure to follow the procedure can have a direct affect on the work of their peers. An example being that if the clay is not properly wedged, the resulting article may blow up in the kiln damaging the work of their friends. After enlightening the student per their responsibilities, the student has found a "goal" or reason to follow proper procedure. Often, just taking the time as a teacher to be interested in the students' apparent lack of motivation, gives the student the recognition necessary to engage in the classwork.
THE SKILLED HELPER; A PROBLEM-MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO HELPING, 6TH EDITION by Gerard Egan
My second professional reading is a book I selected, because of the title. I find myself to have a tendency to help "too much" and I wanted to prevent this from happening in the classroom. The following quote from the introduction certainly caught my interest. ""The problem-management process and skills outlined in this book are even more valuable when used preventively(sic). When I ask parents how important---on a scale from 1 to 100--- interpersonal communication skills and competency in problem-management are for their children, they rate both near 100. But when I ask them how their children learn these skills, the hemming and hawing begin. After a while, i summarize what I am hearing. "We live in a society," I say, "in which these basic skills are extremely important, but we leave their development to chance." The development of these skills is too important to be left to any one social setting. Ideally, they would be taught, modeled, and reinforced in all social settings---family, peer groups, school, church, and community. We have the belief that these skills are essential for our children, but we do not have the social or political will to do much about it.""
Bibliographic Information:
Tudge, J. R. H. (1992). Processes and consequences of peer collaboration: A Vygotskian analysis. Child Development, 63 1364-1379.
162 children between the ages of 5 and 9 were selected for the studies sample. The children were pre-tested to determine the method they used to solve a particular mathematical problem. The children were paired up and given a math concept to solve with multiple possible solution strategies. The children were given 2 individual post-tests.
This study suggests that those students with more competent partners exhibited greater improvements. Whether someone improves or not depends on whether the student uses the same strategy for solving the particular math concept as his/her partner. If pairs of student agree on how to approach a problem, they were far more likely to succeed.
I believe students benefit from mixed ability grouping. This allows for lower students to receive more attention, and this approach provides the more competent student with the challenge of assisting another student.
Teachers should plan activities to minimize conflict in groups. This study demonstrates that partners who use different strategies for solving problems are less successful. Unless the point of an activity requires partners to debate a topic, students should not have differing opinions about how the task before them should be approached. As the famous adage goes, two captains sink a ship. Progress cannot be made by students insisting on doing two different things.
McMillan, James H., "Secondary Teachers’ Classroom Assessment and
Grading Practices", Educational Measurement, Issues and Practice;
Spring 2001; 20, 1; Wilson Education Abstracts.
reviewed by Willis Ferenbaugh
This article considers assessment and grading in secondary schools. The research is done across grades 6-12 in seven urban Virginia school districts. As more education research is done, more education techniques are used, and more accountability is demanded of teachers, it is worthwhile examining the current state of the the education business.
Teachers use a wide variety of assessment/grading approaches, but are there any patterns in who uses what? What types of assessment (quizzes, tests, homework, essays, projects) are used most frequently, and is this dependent on grade, subject, or other factors? Furthermore, are the assessments standardized or self-made? And finally, what are the factors used in determining grades?
This paper first reviews some previous studies of the topic. Then the results from the new research are presented: All 6-12 regular-classroom science, social studies, mathematics, and English teachers from 69 schools in seven urban/metro Virginia school districts contributed to the research survey. Each teacher provided information about important factors in assessment and grading.
For the current research, an exhaustive and somewhat excruciating review of the methodology is given, and would be well skipped by most readers. The large amount of numerical data is analyzed for principal components, the goal being to reduce the number of independent criteria by mathematically justified groupings. The math of this procedure is not really explained, which is probably merciful. Except that the math of this procedure is of limited validity unless the criteria are mathematically well-defined. And since the criteria are based on individual teacher interpretations, this is not strictly true.
After the math workout, it’s pointed out that
“The results of the descriptive analyses essentially replicate, with a different
approach, the findings from earlier research…” (28)
These replicated findings can be summarized as:
1. Teachers use a “hodgepodge” of assessment strategies and grading techniques.
2. Almost all teachers use some “non-achievement” criteria as part of the grading method, even though this is not recommended by measurement specialists.
3. Teachers generally prefer to develop and use their own assessment materials and tests.
The second item is of particular interest, and several possible explanations are mentioned. Teachers may want to motivate and reward effort, not just success; or they may want to increase good grades and/or decrease failures.
My second professional reading...
Bibliographic Information:
Myles B. S., & Simposn R. L. (1994). Prevention and management considerations for aggressive and violent children and youth. Education and Treatment of Children, 17, 370-384.
As this article points out, there are more and more aggressive and violent children in schools.
Teachers feel under-prepared to deal with these students.
Children who commit aggressive acts are more likely to be special ed.
School resources for assisting students with behavior issues are less prevelant. These resources include professional development trainings, smaller class sizes, management consultants, and additional teacher planning time.
Many of the reasons for the increases in aggression and violence are beyond the control of the classroom teacher. Many of the circumstances above either require more money for education, the restructuring of education as we know it, the changing of our governments policies toward war and international aggressions, and cultural major shifts.
The article, however, highlights a few strategires schools can take that will help their success with aggressive and violent students. Teachers should learn to recognize the warning signs of aggression, and problem-solve ways to avoid the situation getting out of hand. Teachers should make sure to defuse the situation while the student is still in the beginning stages of aggression. The signs for this include defensiveness and frustration. Teachers should make sure that their actions do not inadvertently escalate an escalated child. Teachers need to know what to do in the event of a crisis. Rules, consequences, and expectations should be clearly defined. The more structured the environment and the more prepared the teacher, the less likely a student’s frustration will result in aggression.
Teachers should model appropriate behavior and integrate character education. As a language arts teacher, I frequently ask moral dillema questions. These force students to think through morally difficult circumstances and determine and justify the most appropriate course of action.
Schools should make sure they have a strict disciplinary procedure that forces children to take responsibility for their actions, sets clear expectations and consequences, and also creates a space for compassion. All children respond to strict, fair, and compassionate discipline. Students, whether aggressive or not, are rule testers. The more clearly articulated the rules and the more consistently these rules are enforced, the less problems the teachers/school will encounter.
I am surprised that this article did not mention parent involvement. I believe that parent involvement is crucial to changing student behavior, whether academic behavior or physical behavior. I frequently talk to parents about the struggles and successes of their children. I have witnessed very dramatic behavior changes from students after talking to their parents.
Hi all!
For my second professional reading, I’ve been looking at a book by Lee Canter entitled "Parents on Your Side: A Comprehensive Parent Involvement Program for Teachers." This caught my eye because many parents in our village seem very detached from their childrens’ education. Many don’t even send their kids to school. Most appear to do little to encourage their children in their education. Most of the few staff at our school who have been around for more than a year have become quite embittered about this and very unhappy with the lack of parent support. And yet, during our parent-teacher conferences a few weeks ago, I was impressed to see parents of 36 of my 60 or so students in my room - - parents who really do care about their kids. I enjoyed speaking with every one of those parents. And I was struck by their looks of “hands-up-in-the-air-I-don’t-know-what-to-do-either-ness.” Especially with the older students, this was a problem. I’ve heard repetitive reports of students not sleeping at home, parents who haven’t seen their kids in days and who don’t have any control over their kids, and so on and so forth.
All this together, "Parents on Your Side" appears to be a valuable read because one of Canter’s primary focuses is that, in fact, parents don’t always know what to do. They may be trying their best but still not succeeding with their kids. Thus a great deal of a teacher’s job when involving parents is to help them understand how to help their kids. Communication with parents must be more than reporting behaviors - - it must also include suggestions and positive ideas on how the problems can be solved. In this way, teacher and parents can maintain a positive communication and partnership invested in the well-being of the student.
Mithril
Hi again!
In the progress report on my 2nd professional reading, "Parents on Your Side" by Lee Canter, I mentioned that this book caught my interest because it offers techniques and concrete ideas on how to build up and maintain positive communication with parents, and specific techniques on how to work as a team to encourage good behavior on the part of the student. Here are some of the more eye-catching basics of Canter’s suggestions:
1. A teacher must have an effective attitude toward parent involvement.
An effective attitude has four main components. First, a teacher must realize the importance of parent support, since parents are the most important and influential people in a child’s life, they have the most one-on-one time with their children, and they can help back up the teachers on discipline. Second, teachers must always show their concern for the child. This means they don’t just report a problem and turn it over to the parents, but instead communicate regularly about both strengths and weaknesses of a child and always keep the child’s interests first in mind. The third component of an effective attitude is the old adage “put yourself in their shoes:” treat parents the way you would want to be treated. Always try to think about how you would feel if you were the child’s parent. What would be the best way to be approached? Finally, teachers must show professionalism and confidence, which means they involve the parents as much as possible, welcoming their ideas without becoming intimidated. In addition, they show that they know what they are doing. They never apologize for actions unless they are truly at fault, and they don’t show indecision or lack of ability.
2. A teacher must recognize roadblocks in working with parents.
Canter suggests that there are two main types of roadblocks to parent-teacher communication. Roadblocks that keep teachers from initiating communication include pressure for a teacher to handle all problems within the classroom and without outside help, negative expectations about parent involvement, and lack of training in working with parents. If teachers recognize these roadblocks, they can then begin to break through them and realize that each of these can be overcome. The second type of roadblock is that which keeps parents from supporting the teacher, including that parents are overwhelmed, don’t know how to help, have negative views of school (from personal experience), or have a negative view of teacher/school competence. By identifying these “parent support” roadblocks, teachers can more effectively communicate with parents by stating the roadblock clearly and then suggesting ideas for how to overcome it.
3. A teacher must begin communication before the school year begins, and then foster year-long positive communication with parents.
This may include a letter to parents including an introduction, classroom discipline plan, and homework policy. Teachers might also call parents before the school year starts. Back-to-School night may be more effective if teachers send individualized invitations, involve students in planning, use parent motivators to improve attendance, decorate the classroom with details of the students’ day like schedules, assignments, expectations, etc. . . . Canter is quick to suggest that positive communication is essential to parent involvement. This means parents might make positive phone calls when a child is doing well, or send home a positive note, good behavior message, or academic award. Birthday greetings, get-well cards and phone calls, and thank-you notes are equally appropriate to show concern and care for a child and their parents. Home visits are a very personal, great way to show concern (and should be scheduled ahead of time!). Another interesting idea Canter suggests is to work with students to create a weekly or bi-weekly classroom newsletter to highlight what is being done in class, upcoming projects and assignments, any outstanding work or students, and any special events taking place.
4. A teacher must help parents to help their children!
-Teachers can and should involve parents in homework. Canter provides a great homework tip handout for parents which suggests that the help their kids set up a quiet study area, create a homework survival kit with any necessary materials, schedule a daily homework time, encourage their children to work independently, and motivate children with praise. Once these are in place, communication should continue with positive homework notes to both parents and students. Blank notes can be sent home as well for parents to write to teachers. Test update slips can be sent to advise parents of when a test is coming so they can help their kids study. Homework assignment books can be used as well, and parents can be asked to sign daily homework.
-In case of a problem, teachers should contact parents as early as possible rather than waiting for the problem to bubble up, and should clearly document and file all incidents. Teachers should be ready to help parents deal with the difficulties of helping their kids - - if the parents are interested in hearing. Canter suggests, for example, the “broken-record” method. Parents should calmly and clearly tell their child what is expected of him and her. If and when the child argues, the parents should avoid argument by repeating their expectations - - 3 times at most - - and then stop. Decide on a disciplinary action ahead of time (including duration), and then be regular with it. If the child does not meet expectations, then the discipline should happen each time until behavior changes. Parents should be ready for times when a child tries to manipulate them by crying, getting angry, or becoming defiant. Finally, parents should work hard to catch their children being good, and then praise and reward them for it.
-Another great idea suggested in "Parents on Your Side" is the Home-School Contract. This is a document to encourage behavior change that should be written together with the student, parents, and teachers. It should explain the desired behavior change and then suggest two or three rewards that will be given to the student by the parent and then by the teacher if the behavior changes. In turn, it will also suggest two or three consequences that will be given by the parents and the teacher for each day the behavior does not change. All parties should agree to and sign the contract before implementation.
In sum, "Parents on Your Side" has a lot of very useful, concrete suggestions for how to get parents involved in their child’s education. I really appreciate the handout formats included at the end of the book. I understand that parents are crucial in education, but I’ve been wondering how to better involve them and get them interested and comfortable with our classroom. Canter’s suggestions are a great starting point from which to begin.
Take care,
Mithril
I enjoyed Mithril’s second reading post. I believe that a parent’s involvement in their child’s education is often critical to the student’s success. I also feel that getting parents to become involved is not always easy and Mithril listed some good suggestions that it feel would be helpful. I think that this book would be a good one to add to my collection and I would like to thank Mithril for posting it so that I could learn about it.
Alisha
My second professional reading article is School Climate and Learning in Best practice Briefs, Michigan State University, December 2004
In this article focuses on how a schools culture and climate can either support or impede learning. This article gives a clear description of what it means by school culture and climate and how they can support or impede learning.
According to this paper, school culture is the shared ideas, assumptions, values and beliefs of those involved in the schools. The culture of the school affects what the individuals in the school feel is expected of them as well as what they feel is acceptable behavior for others. Some important factors that make a schools culture supportive to learning are as follows. First, the building must be arranged in a way that supports students’ needs. Secondly, School administrators, teachers, students, and parents participate in the decision making process. Thirdly those in the school must believe the following things: all students can learn, all parents what their kids to succeed and parent are partners in their student’s education.
According to the paper school climate is the way that the teachers and students feel about being at school each day. There are four aspects which can affect the schools climate. These aspects are physical environment, social environment, affective environment, and academic environment. According to this paper the:
Physical environment supports learning when it is not over crowded, when the students feel safe, when the school building is orderly, clean, and each part is well designed for its use. The social environment is supportive of learning when interactions are encouraged between teachers, students, and parents, when teachers participate in on-site decisions, when students’ suggestions are taken seriously and when staff and students are trained to prevent and resolve conflicts.
The Affective environment supports learning when teachers and staff have high moral, when everyone treats other with respect and value, when friendliness is apparent, and when everyone feels that they are an important part of the school.
The Academic environment is supportive of learning when academics are emphasized. But in addition to emphasis on academics each student’s education should be well rounded, expectations should be kept high and student progress should be monitored. It goes on to state the importance of prompt feedback on assessments and the importance of using these assessments not only to evaluate students but also use the assessments to improve and adapt lessons. Another part of having an academic environment that supports learning is to have confident and knowledgeable teachers who are prepared for the classes that they teach.
The paper continues on to explain how school climate effects performance and it gives the number of studies that the Search Institute have performed that showed connections between school climate and student success with higher grades, engagement, attendance, expectations, and aspirations, higher self-esteem and self-concept, less anxiety, depression and loneliness, and less substance abuse. After stating the benefits of a positive school climate it refers the reader to the appendix where there are some tools to help determine the climate a school. The paper concludes with a list of ways that different individuals in the school can make appropriate changes to different areas of a schools climate. From this paper, I learned some things that I can use to create a positive climate in my classroom by making it a safe, inviting place where all students are respected and made to feel that they are an important part of their education as well an important part of the school.
For my second professional reading I read:
“Constructivist Philosophy and Cooperative Learning Practice: Toward Integration and Reconciliation in Secondary Classrooms”. Vermette, Paul; Foote, Chandra. American Secondary Education 30 (1) Fall 2001.
Constructivist teaching strategies and cooperative learning are both becoming more prevalent in classrooms. However, sometimes these are not clearly understood and mistakenly equated with one another. This article reviews common models of cooperative learning and examines how they can be used as part of a constructivist teaching practice.
The article begins with a review of common cooperative learning models of which these are some examples:
• Jigsaw – Students are placed in groups with each member responsible for mastering unique and specific information on a topic.
• Student Team-Achievement – A competitive model, in which students meet in a team to master content of a lesson. Student test individually, and the tests are scored on improvement over previous tests. The team with the most improvement is recognized
• Group Investigation – Each group selects a project to learn about and demonstrate mastery of a subject. The group divides the project into individual tasks and come together to complete the project.
• Academic Controversy - A group is divided in half, with each side responsible for researching opposing positions on a topic. Students present their position and have a chance to debate with the other side. Afterwards the students must present the opinions of the opposing side. Finally the team creates a joint position paper.
While cooperative learning has much in common with constructivism, not all cooperative learning activities are constructivist. The authors list 4 tenets that are central to a constructivist approach.
• Students learn through personally organizing content material and making meaning of it.
• Students engage in classroom-wide dialogue to internalize knowledge
• Students recognize that knowledge is created by people and thus influenced by culture, values, and prior experiences.
• Instructional practice includes activities such as problem-based learning, dialogues, and authentic assessment.
Cooperative learning activities in which the teacher chooses the content objectives and students are seeking a standardized body of knowledge are not representive of constructivist principles. The authors cite the Jigsaw and Student Team Achievement models as examples of cooperative learning activities which are often not constructivist. The Group Investigation and Academic Controversy models are cited as examples which tend to be more constructivist because they ask student so generate questions and answers independently and require analysis and reflection.
In conclusion, the authors portray constructivism as an effective strategy to have students meaningfully engage content and seek a depth of understanding. Further, they want teachers to reflect on their use of cooperative learning and make it more effective through implementing constructivist strategies.
Mueller, C. M., and C. S. Dweck, Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine
Children’s Motivation and Performance, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 75, 1998, pp 33-52.
reviewed by Willis Ferenbaugh
This article describes research and pondering into the effects of praise on students. Specifically, the authors consider the different consequences of praise for intelligence and praise for effort. Conjectures are made, and the results of some previous research are summarized. Then the new studies are described and analyzed.
The main hypothesis is that praise for intelligence (or “praise for ability”) has some negative effects. There are two proposed negative results. First, students may turn away from learning-oriented goals and toward achievement goals (a seemingly likely outcome for standard scoring-based schooling). Second, students may believe that scores are measures of innate “ability,” and therefore, regardless of how they like their scores, they may feel like they are unchangeable characteristics of themselves.
To test their basic hypotheses, six elaborate studies were conducted with groups of fifth-grade students. In each study, students were broken into groups and given problems to solve. Then the solutions were scored, and the results were given back to the students. Results were accompanied by 3 kinds of feedback: praised ability, praised effort, or no praise at all. In every case, students were told that they had gotten a particular score, regardless of the actual results. (Every study involved a later debriefing of the students, during which the students were apprised of their status as misled guinea pigs. The hope is that the study would benefit educators without scarring the test subjects.)
Various procedures were used to probe the effects of the praise. Further problems were given to see changes in success rate. Questions were asked of the students about their results and what caused any later setbacks. (For the most part, students who were praised for ability later blamed their lack of ability, and students who were praised for effort were more likely to blame their lack of effort.) Results and interviews were also used to see how students dealt with later setbacks.
As is standard in these big studies, extensive statistical analysis was done with the results. In this paper, the procedures themselves seem to be more suspect than the analysis. (Some results seem to measure the correspondence of the praise with the subsequent student parroting of that praise.) However the variation in the techniques used alleviates specific questionable results. The statistics seems to be a fair way to quantify the results and wring information from them.
And the wrung information supports previous research and one of the initial speculations: That praise for intelligence and ability may tend to undermine some of the real goals of education. The researchers suggest that something can be learned from the preferred response to negative behaviour: “Blame the deed not the doer.” Positive results should be reinforced, but this should be done by praising effort (the deed) and not innate ability.
The Skilled Helper, A Problem-Management Approach to Helping; Sixth edition by Gerard Egan
The Skilled Helper should be considered an excellent reference for the educator to have close at hand. The table of content is a book in itself. Each Stage, Part, and Chapter is itemized for easy reference, to deal with specific situations which will arise in a school environment. This book contains 344 pages of 15 chapters full of issues and strategies.
This tome held so much information I could not possibly read and internalize it as a whole. Gerard Egan cautions that his book should not be used as a “bible”, but only as one way to impart and empower your client, patient or student in taking control, making beneficial choices and thinking with forethought about the consequences of their choices. The “helper” is not dictating solutions but assisting the subject in guiding their own lives in appropriate and empowering response to their environment.
As a student, I found it hard to consider reading this book cover to cover. If I my goal were to become a psychologist by profession it would be on my “must read” list. I am very happy to have chosen this to read as my professional article for this assignment as it has introduced me to a helpful resource in my teaching career.
I especially related to Part 4, Stage III, Helping Clients Determine What They Need and Want. This chapter brings together a strategy for planning of which I have found useful in guiding my own life choices. The strategy requires that the subject consider two questions: What do I want? and What do I have to do to get what I want? Considering these two questions are the beginning of organization of thought and solutions to problems.
Setting clear goals can focus students’ attention and action. Give your class a rubric at the beginning of a lesson and not at the end. Clear goals can mobilize students’ energy and effort toward an end or a “bigger picture.” Setting clear goals can motivate students to search for strategies and problem solving toward accomplishment of those goals.
References
Thompson, G. (1994). Discipline and the high school teacher. Clearing House, 67, 261-269.
Thompson (1994) identifies two different types of behavior: caused and purposive. His research also distinguishes between real and perceived discipline problems. In addition, the author defines the threshold of tolerance and the need for a positive classroom climate. The purpose of this research is to identify the types of behavior present in the classroom as a precursor to identifying a disciplinary action.
Thompson (1994) identifies two different types of behavior: caused and purposive, that is, the behavior either has a cause or a purpose. The author offers the example of a student misbehaving as a means of getting attention. Although the attention that the student receives is negative, the need is still met. Thompson also notes that by the teacher reacting, the teacher is reinforcing this behavior. Often times, the teacher will be unable to identify the cause of the misbehavior. Misbehavior can stem from a wide array of sources; for example, a student may have come to school without eating breakfast. Thompson suggests that when the cause of misbehavior is unidentifiable, the teacher should make every attempt to identify it.
Thompson (1994) also distinguishes between “real” and “perceived” discipline problems. Thompson defines a “real” discipline problem as one that “arises because a student is infringing on the real freedoms of the teacher or other members of the class.” A “perceived” discipline problem is one for which “the teacher in a very real sense is the cause because he or she perceives a problem when, in fact, there actually is none.” In a classroom, the greater amount of discipline problems that a teacher perceives, the greater amount of discipline problems will exist. This is in direct correlation to what Thompson denotes as a teacher’s threshold of tolerance.
A teacher’s threshold of tolerance is in part, based on the teacher’s personality. Thompson warns against overreacting with misbehavior by enforcing disciplinary action when it is unnecessary. What a teacher deems “unnecessary” determines his/her threshold of tolerance. Thompson provides the example of a student rumpling a piece of paper in the classroom. By identifying this behavior, the teacher disrupts other students in the classroom and defines this as a discipline problem. Thompson says that the teacher must choose his/her battles in that in order for the disciplinary action to be effective, the disruption to the class must be greater than the correction of the disruption. In addition, Thompson notes that classroom discipline problems can be minimized by giving students as many opportunities for independent behavior as they can handle and by accepting the student regardless of his or her behavioral issues.
Thompson stresses the importance of a positive learning environment as high school students today are faced with increasing demands. He promotes the implementation of preventative disciplinary approaches. Instead of overreacting if a student is passing a note in class, Thompson recommends simply taking the note, tearing it up, and throwing it away. Also, he notes that teachers need to be aware of the individual situations and types of students that they are working with, in particular, students with maladaptive behavior that may be the result of a deeper emotional problem. Finally, it is important to remember one’s role as a teacher, not a friend of the students. It is important to establish one’s role as a teacher early on as students appreciate having an adult role model that holds clear expectations in the classroom.
The development of an understanding of student behavior in the classroom plays an essential role in promoting a positive classroom climate. Through the development of a safe classroom environment, teachers and students alike will place learning at the forefront, creating effective teaching and learning practices.
Fenwick, Tara. "Balancing on the Edge of Surprise: Managing Junior High
Classrooms." Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Canadian
Society for the Study of Education, June 4-7, 1996, Ontario, Canada.
ERIC. OCLC. U of AK, Fairbanks, Rasmunson Lib. 1 Dec. 2007
In a presentation for a conference of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education Dr. Tara Fenwick explains her research on junior high classroom management. The question she set out to answer in her paper is “what is it that teacher’s manage, and see themselves managing (2)?” She groups her findings into three categories: space, energy and self.
This paper is based on a large qualitative case study done on a catholic school in Edmonton that had been deemed “successful” by representatives of the community and district. In the study they methodology used to compile data was observation, interviews, and the study of documents. The study builds on research already done about how and why teachers make the decisions they do.
Fenwick and her team found that they could categorize what teachers manage into three distinct but interrelated groups: space, energy, and self. Teachers managed space by organizing objects, coordinating student’s movements, creating structures that determine practice and values, and forming classroom community. Teachers manage energy by “balancing the various dynamics of adolescent emotion and physically to create a psychologically safe place, while stimulating student interest” and maintaining student engagement (13). The third and possibly most important in being an effective teacher, is managing self; to create a “strong but flexible teacher identity in relation to students (14).” To deal with the unique amount of energy that surrounds junior high students they also identified that good teacher would “manage” this energy by
1.“watch[ing] and interpret[ing] the energy continually, alter[ing] their plans, react[ing] spontaneously to surprises, and make[ing] choices to act and speak quickly and constantly (22);”
2. keeping the pace fast and removing visual and tactile access to any thing that
may distract students;
3. being flexible with students who struggle because of personality, capability, and stage of maturity;
4. keeping records of absences, behaviors, and homework.
Fenwick’s research is important because it explains three key areas of management that good teachers all have: space, energy, and self. She does a thorough job in explaining what these areas are comprised of as well as how junior high classrooms are different and must be managed with a focus on energy. Future research in this area could include how can these areas of management be taught, if they can be. or how this management may look in different subject areas.
Emmer, Edmund T, and Carolyn M Evertson. Effective Classroom Management at the
Beginning of the School Year. Austin, TX: Texas Univ. , 1979. ERIC. OCLC. U
of AK, Fairbanks. 6 Dec. 2007
In Edmund Emmer and Carolyn Evertson’s article they focus on what do teachers who are effective managers do at the beginning of the school year. They predicted that beginning of the year activities are crucial to managing a class for the rest of the year. This was surmised based upon published research on the deviant student behavior and teacher responses to it.
Emmer and Evertson observed classrooms at the beginning of the school year for the first few weeks and then periodically throughout the year. Narrative records and other descriptive data was collected and compared to determine which teachers were more effective managers and which were less effective managers. Descriptive data was collected using the Student Engagement Rating (SER and the Component Rating systems.
After classifying the teachers they analyzed the data and found significant differences in what more effective managers did compared to less effective managers. Good managers spent the first three weeks teaching students how to behave and reminding them of the rules. Procedures were established early and directions were given clearly both verbally and visually and often taught in a step by step manner. Some teachers used procedures and others incentives for good behavior and most taught students specific signals to respond to. These teachers were recorded as making eye contact often and stopping inappropriate behavior immediately.
Teachers who were less effective managers were lacking in thought out procedures. For example, one teacher had no procedure for using the pencil sharpener and students would get up whenever they felt like it to use the sharpener, often distracting the class. Some of these teacher tried methods that worked for effective managers but they did not follow through with them and would allow students to ignore instructions. These teachers were also observed to be ineffectual monitors of the classroom, less likely to establish eye contact with students. They were more likely to make threats or warn students of consequences but not follow through and also to ignore or take longer to respond to inappropriate student behavior.
Emmer and Evertson’s prediction that early activities in the classroom are crucial to effective management was demonstrated to have validity. Their work makes clear the importance of establishing rules and procedures early on in the classroom. Teachers who did not do this struggled all year with classroom management.
Tina Fisher
EDSC 658 Armstrong
Professional Reading #2
Oct. 9th, 2007
Service-Learning; A Language of “We”
By Pamela G. Taylor & Christine Ballengee- Morris from Art Education magazine, September 2004.
Service-learning is described as a “structured and theoretically grounded practice in which service experiences are directly connected to academic objectives” (Ballengee & Morris 6). This article overviews the underlying principles of this practice in six different “we” categories: We plan, learn, reflect, trust, hope, and care.
The planning part of service-learning projects begins with recognizing a need in the community. To ensure mutual benefits for every party involved, the planning efforts must be collaborative. “We cannot tell someone what they need, just as they cannot dictate what our needs are or will be” (Ballengee &Morris 6). Once the need is recognized and a plan developed, a working balance of everyone’s skills, expertise, and desires for involvement should be considered. In a service-learning program, the goals may begin very simply--to provide art-making experiences for children and provide art-teaching experiences for volunteers.
The learning element of service-learning projects is expressed in the symbolic use of the hyphen between the word “service” and “learning”. “The hyphen represents the reciprocal nature of service-learning in which both the students and the community learn from each other. Assessment of learning in service projects is often found in reflective journaling of the experience.
Reflection during service- learning may happen in various forms including discussion, writing, exhibition, games, or critique. Journaling about specific thoughts and feeling during a project help to further reflection often allowing “old and sometimes damaging ideas and stereotypes let go”. It is important to provide a safe and supportive space for critical self-reflection.
This leads to the next element of trust in service-learning projects. Trust is developed through each participant’s sense of commitment to the project. “Single service acts rarely promote a value for sustained social and civic responsibility. To promote trust between all parties involved, projects need to be either ongoing or touted as a weekly, monthly, or yearly event. Allowing for a lengthier period of time also ensures that changes can be made to adjust accordingly to everyone’s needs involved.
Hope is another key element in service- learning projects. The hope is that an enduring sense of civic responsibility, that service “becomes just as habitual as brushing our teeth in the morning”. Teachers have the understanding that they are modeling for students, a way of life, not just a lesson. “Through such experiences we may learn to see the world not as a static reality in which we must function according to the rules and values of the dominant culture, but as a process of transformation”.
Finally, care is necessary for successful service-learning projects. Can care be taught? Taylor and Ballange say they are not sure, but they want to see a marked difference in the approach of their students from “something must be done” to “I must do something”.
The “First Days of School “ describes things teachers should do in preparation for the first days of school. It describes setting up grade books, classrooms, bulletin boards and really anything having to do with the classroom and making sure it is ready for students to show up for their class. Suggests that students be assigned a seat so that the teacher can learn their names quicker.
Along with preparation, the book talks about what the teacher should do after the school year begins. Things like greeting the students out in the hall with a smile and their name. The teacher can also have a syllabus ready to pass out so the students know where the class is going with the subject. There are suggestions for the teacher to get to know the students so there is a connection between the student and teacher.
I found the book to be helpful in that it gives teachers suggestions that can help ease students into the classroom. It also has inputs from teachers who have tried some of the items or used the book so it adds another level of certainty that some of the ideas might actually work or be helpful. I have also tried to use the suggestion of learning the students names not only to know them I the classroom but also as I see them in the hall, which tends to be trickier since I may hear a “hello” and turn around to see a student from a class but the name doesn’t come fast enough and all I get out is a “hey.”
The book offers a great deal of things I can do and try to improve my classroom when I get one. It would also be a source I can turn to when I am looking for things to try to help the students and break up times when it gets monotonous. It will also be a source that I can refer to as I evaluate my management plan and see what suggestions there are I making my classroom safer and better learning environment,
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